System Sensor Smoke Alarm A05 1003 002 User Manual

A P P L I C A T I O N S

G U I D E

System

Smoke Detectors

The purpose of this guide is installers should find the contents both educational and

to provide information con- informative.

Introduction

cerning the proper application of smoke detectors used in

conjunction with fire alarm systems. It outlines basic prin- Though this information is based upon industry expertise

ciples that should be considered in the application of early and many years of experience, it is intended to be used

warning fire and smoke detection devices. Operating char- only as a technical guide. The requirements of applicable

acteristics of detectors and environmental factors, which codes and standards, as well as directives of the Authorities

may aid, delay or prevent their operation, are presented.

Having Jurisdiction (AHJ’s) should be followed. In partic-

ular, the most current version of NFPA 72 for installation

Fire protection engineers, mechanical and electrical engi- and testing of systems is a key element in the effectiveness

neers, fire service personnel, fire alarm designers and of smoke detection systems.

Section 1

ICBO’s Uniform Building Code is generally used through-

out the West and Southwest regions of the United States.

NFPA Codes and

Standards

NFPA publishes standards for

the proper application, instal-

Standards That

Apply

Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI)

900 Montclair Road, Birmingham, Alabama 35213-1206

SBCCI’s Standard Building Code is generally used in the

South and Southeast regions of the United States.

lation, and maintenance of automatic smoke detectors. The

principal codes and standards that should be reviewed

before specifying or installing automatic smoke detectors

are listed below:

International Code Council, Inc. (International Building

Code/International Fire Code)

5360 Workman Mill Road, Whittier, California 90601-

2298

The organizations listed above have formed an umbrella

organization known as the International Code Council

(ICC), for the purpose of combining the codes produced by

the above three organizations into a single set of model

building and fire codes. ICC’s International Building Code

and International Fire Code were first published in 2000

and have been adopted by some states.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

Batterymarch Park, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269-9101

NFPA publishes codes and standards concerning all phas-

es of fire protection. Among those which directly concern

automatic smoke detectors are:

NFPA 70: National Electrical Code

NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm Code

NFPA 72 covers minimum performance, location, mount-

ing, testing, and maintenance requirements of automatic

fire detectors.

Testing Laboratories

Testing laboratories test smoke detectors, control panels

and other components of fire alarm systems to verify con-

formance with NFPA requirements and their own stan-

dards. Equipment that passes their tests are identified by a

label and/or listing.

NFPA 90A: Standard for the Installation of Air

Conditioning and Ventilating Systems

NFPA 92A: Smoke Control Systems in Malls, Atria, and

Large Areas

NFPA 90A and 92A provide information for the use of

smoke detectors in ducts of HVAC systems and smoke con-

trol systems.

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)

333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, Illinois 60062

1655 Scott Boulevard, Santa Clara, California 95050

1285 Walt Whitman Road, Melville, New York 11747

12 Laboratory Drive, P.O. Box 13995, Research Triangle

Park, North Carolina

NFPA 101: Life Safety Code

NFPA 101 specifies the requirements for smoke detection in

both new and existing buildings depending on the type of

occupancy.

UL publishes an annual directory listing fire protection

equipment which bear the UL label. Its standards which

apply to smoke detectors are:

Building and Fire Codes

There are three independent regional organizations which

write model building and fire codes which become law

when adopted by local and state governments. These codes

specify smoke detector requirements based on building

type and occupancy. The organizations are:

UL 217: Single and Multiple Station Smoke Detectors

UL 268: Smoke Detectors for Fire Protection Signaling

Systems

UL 268A: Smoke Detectors for Duct Applications

UL 864: Standard for Control Units for Fire Protective

Signaling Systems

Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA)

4051 West Flossmoor Road, Country Club Hills, Illinois

60478-5795

BOCA’s National Building Code is generally used through-

out the northeast and midwest regions of the United States.

Factory Mutual Research (FM)

1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike, P.O. Box 9102,

Norwood, Massachusetts 02062

International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)

5360 Workman Mill Road, Whittier, California 90601-

2298

FM publishes an annual report listing fire protection equip-

ment which bears its label.

Industry Publications

Manufacturer’s Publications

NEMA Guide for Proper Use of Smoke Detectors in Duct

Applications

The manufacturer of the smoke detectors being used

should be contacted for any published information on their

products.

NEMA Training Manual on Fire Alarm Systems

NEMA Guide to Code Requirements for Fire Protective

Signaling and Detection Systems

NEMA Guide for proper Use of System Smoke Detectors

Section 2

There are two basic types of Electronic circuitry monitors both chambers and compares

smoke detectors in use today; their outputs. If the humidity or the atmospheric pressure

ionization and photoelectric. changes, both chambers’ outputs are affected equally and

The sensing chambers of these cancel each other. When combustion particles enter the

How Smoke

Detectors Work

detectors use different principles of operation to sense the sensing chamber, its current decreases while the current of

visible or invisible particles of combustion given off in the reference chamber remains unchanged. The resulting

developing fires.

current imbalance is detected by the electronic circuitry.

(See Figure 5.) There are a number of conditions that can

affect dual-chamber ionization sensors; dust, excessive

humidity (condensation), significant air currents, and tiny

insects can be misread as particles of combustion by the

electronic circuitry monitoring the sensors.

Ionization Smoke Detector Operation

A typical ionization chamber consists of two electrically

charged plates and

radioactive source (typically

Americium 241) for ionizing the air between the plates.

(See Figure 1.) The radioactive source emits particles that

collide with the air molecules and dislodge their electrons.

As molecules lose electrons, they become positively

charged ions. As other molecules gain electrons, they

become negatively charged ions. Equal numbers of positive

and negative ions are created. The positively charged ions

are attracted to the negatively charged electrical plate,

while the negatively charged ions are attracted to the pos-

itively charged plate. (See Figure 2.) This creates a small

ionization current that can be measured by electronic cir-

cuitry connected to the plates (“normal” condition in the

detector).

Figure 2: Ion Distribution

Figure 1: Particle Radiation Pattern

Particles of combustion are much larger than the ionized

air molecules. As particles of combustion enter an ioniza-

tion chamber, ionized air molecules collide and combine

with them. (See Figure 3.) Some particles become posi-

tively charged and some become negatively charged. As

these relatively large particles continue to combine with

many other ions, they become recombination centers, and

the total number of ionized particles in the chamber is

reduced. This reduction in the ionized particles results in a

decrease in the chamber current that is sensed by elec-

tronic circuitry monitoring the chamber. When the current

is reduced by a predetermined amount, a threshold is

crossed and “alarm” condition is established.

Figure 3: Ion and Particles of Combustion Distribution

Changes in humidity and atmospheric pressure affect the

chamber current and create an effect similar to the effect of

particles of combustion entering the sensing chamber. To

compensate for the possible effects of humidity and pressure

changes, the dual ionization chamber was developed and

has become commonplace in the smoke detector market.

Sensing Chamber

(Current Decreasing)

Sensing Chamber

Source

A dual-chamber detector utilizes two ionization chambers;

one is a sensing chamber that is open to the outside air.

(See Figure 4). The sensing chamber is affected by partic-

ulate matter, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. The

other is a reference chamber that is partially closed to out-

side air and affected only by humidity and atmospheric

pressure, because its tiny openings block the entry of larg-

er particulate matter including particles of combustion.

Reference

Chamber

(Current Stable)

Reference Chamber

(Current Stable)

Figure 5: Dual Chamber with

Particles of Combustion

Figure 4: Dual Chamber

Photoelectric Light Obscuration Smoke Detector

Photoelectric Smoke Detector Operation

Another type of photoelectric detector, the light obscura-

tion detector, employs a light source and a photosensitive

receiving device, such as a photodiode (see Figure 8).

When smoke particles partially block the light beam

(Figure 9), the reduction in light reaching the photosensi-

tive device alters its output. The change in output is sensed

by the detector’s circuitry, and when the threshold is

crossed, an alarm is initiated. Obscuration type detectors

are usually of the projected beam type where the light

source spans the area to be protected.

Smoke produced by a fire affects the intensity of a light

beam passing through air. The smoke can block or obscure

the beam. It can also cause the light to scatter due to reflec-

tion off the smoke particles. Photoelectric smoke detectors

are designed to sense smoke by utilizing these effects of

smoke on light.

Photoelectric Light Scattering Smoke Detector

Most photoelectric smoke detectors are of the spot type and

operate on the light scattering principle. A light-emitting

diode (LED) is beamed into an area not normally “seen” by

a photosensitive element, generally a photodiode. (See

Figure 6.) When smoke particles enter the light path, light

strikes the particles (Figure 7) and is reflected onto the pho-

tosensitive device causing the detector to respond.

Light Source

Light Sensitive Device

Light Source

Light Sensitive Device

Figure 6: Light Scattering Detector

Figure 7: Light Scattering Detector with Smoke

Light Source

Light Sensitive Device

Light Source

Figure 8: Light Obscuration Detector

Figure 9: Light Obscuration Detector with Smoke

Smoke Detector Design Considerations

Considerations in Selecting Detectors

Smoke detectors are based on simple concepts, but certain The characteristics of an ionization detector make it more

design considerations need to be observed. They should suitable for detection of fast flaming fires that are charac-

produce an alarm signal when smoke is detected, but terized by combustion particles in the 0.01 to 0.4 micron

should minimize the impact of an unwanted signal which size range. Photoelectric smoke detectors are better suited

can arise from a variety of causes. In an ionization detec- to detect slow smoldering fires that are characterized by

tor, dust and dirt can accumulate on the radioactive source particulates in the 0.4 to 10.0 micron size range. Each type

and cause it to become more sensitive. In a photoelectric of detector can detect both types of fires, but their respec-

detector, light from the light source may be reflected off the tive response times will vary, depending on the type of fire.

walls of the sensing chamber and be seen by the photo-

sensitive device when no smoke is present. The entrance of Because the protected buildings normally contain a variety

insects, dirt, drywall dust, and other forms of contamina- of combustibles, it is often very difficult to predict what

tion into the sensing chamber can also reflect light from size particulate matter will be produced by a developing

the light source onto the photosensitive device.

fire. The fact that different ignition sources can have dif-

ferent effects on a given combustible further complicates

Electrical transients and some kinds of radiated energy can the selection. A lighted cigarette, for example, will usually

affect the circuitry of both ionization and photoelectric produce a slow smoldering fire if it is dropped on a sofa or

smoke detectors and be interpreted by the electronic cir- bed. However, if the cigarette happens to fall upon a news-

cuitry to be smoke, resulting in nuisance alarms.

paper on top of a sofa or bed, the resulting fire may be

characterized more by flames than by smoldering smoke.

The allowable sensitivity ranges for both types of detectors

are established by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. and all The innumerable combustion profiles possible with vari-

are verified by their performance in fire tests. Regardless of ous fire loads and possible ignition sources make it difficult

their principle of operation all smoke detectors are required to select the type of detector best suited for a particular

to respond to the same test fires.

application.

For more information, see NFPA 72-1999, paragraphs A-2- save more in the future. Nevertheless, smoke detectors do

3.6.1.2, A-2-3.6.1.1, A-2-3.6.1.2(a), and A-2-3.6.1.2(b).

have limitations. They may not provide early warning of a

fire developing on another level of a building. A first floor

NFPA 72 requirements also dictate that alarm notification detector, for example, may not detect a second floor fire.

appliances (including smoke detectors with built-in For this reason, detectors should be located on every level

sounders) produce the 3-pulse temporal pattern fire alarm of a building. In addition, detectors may not sense a fire

evacuation signal described in ANSI S3.41. (Audible developing on the other side of a closed door. In areas

Emergency Evacuation Signals)

where doors are usually closed, detectors should be locat-

ed on both sides of the door.

Situations Where Other Types of Detectors May Be Used

In certain circumstances where standard smoke detectors

are unsuitable, special-purpose detectors, such as flame

detectors, heat detectors, and other detection devices may

be used.

As already indicated, detectors have sensing limitations.

Ionization detectors are better at detecting fast, flaming

fires than slow, smoldering fires. Photoelectric smoke

detectors sense smoldering fires better than flaming fires.

Because fires develop in different ways and are often

unpredictable in their growth, neither type of detector is

always best. A given detector may not always provide sig-

nificant advance warning of fires when fire protection prac-

tices are inadequate, nor when caused by violent explo-

sions, escaping gas, improper storage of flammable liquids

such as cleaning solvents, etc.

The application of these special types of detectors should

be based on an engineering survey and used in accordance

with the manufacturer’s installation instructions provided.

Smoke Detectors Have Limitations

Smoke detectors offer the earliest possible warning of fire.

They have saved thousands of lives in the past and will

Section 3

Wiring Supervision

Class B Circuits

Typical System

Layout

The initiating circuits that con- Class B circuits differentiate between short circuits across

nect smoke detectors to a con- the loop (alarm) and opens on the loop (trouble).

trol panel should be super- Supervision of this circuit is accomplished by passing a low

vised so that a fault (trouble) condition that could interfere current through the installation wiring and an end-of-line

with the proper operation of the circuit will be detected resistor. Increases or decreases in this supervisory current

and annunciated.

are monitored by the fire alarm control panel and will

cause alarm or trouble conditions, respectively, to be indi-

Smoke detectors are generally categorized as either 2-wire cated. A single open in a Class B circuit disables all devices

or 4-wire detectors. Two-wire detectors derive their power electrically beyond the open.

directly from the same fire alarm control panel alarm initi-

ating device circuit over which they report an alarm.

Because of their dependency on the initiating circuit, 2-wire

END OF LINE

RESISTOR

detectors must be tested and listed for compatibility with

the control panel to be used, to ensure proper operation.

Four-wire detectors are powered from a separate pair of

wires, and, like the 2-wire detector, apply an electrical

short across the associated alarm initiating device circuit to

transmit an alarm (Figure 10). Because they do not derive

power from the alarm initiating device circuit, electrical

compatibility is predicated upon the operating parameters

TYPICAL

INITIATING

DEVICES

of the power supply to which the detectors are connected

and not the initiating circuit. Supervision of the power to

4-wire detectors is mandated through the use of an end-of-

line power supervision relay. When power is on, the relay

contacts of the end-of-line relay are closed and connected

in series with the end-of-line resistor beyond the last initi-

ating device. Loss of power at any point in the power sup-

ply circuit will cause the relay to de-energize and a trouble

condition to occur on the initiating circuit.

INITIATING DEVICE

CIRCUIT

ZONE 1

TROUBLE

ALARM

NOTE*: Refer to the fire alarm control panel manufacturer’s

operating manual to determine the ability of a specific initi-

ating circuit to react in a “Class B” or “Class A” fashion.

FIRE ALARM CONTROL UNIT

PRIMARY

POWER

SUPPLY

*NFPA 72 now classifies initiating device circuits by “Style” and “Class”. Style B

is an example of a Class B circuit; Style D is an example of a Class A circuit.

Figure 10: Two-Wire Detector Circuit

Class A Circuits

Class A circuits also differentiate between short circuits

across the loop and opens on the loop. Supervision is

accomplished by monitoring the level of current passing

through the installation wiring and the end-of-line resistor,

which in a Class A circuit is an integral part of the fire

alarm control panel. Class A wiring must return to and be

terminated in the control panel. This technique requires a

minimum of four conductors to be terminated at the panel,

and further requires that the fire alarm control panel is

designed to monitor Class A circuits. The additional cir-

cuitry necessary for Class A supervision enables the con-

trol panel to “condition” the initiating circuit to monitor

the initiating circuit from both ends when in a trouble

mode due to an open fault on the loop. This “conditioning”

ensures that all devices are capable of responding and

reporting an alarm despite a single open or non-simultane-

ous single ground fault on a circuit conductor.

TYPICAL

INITIATING

DEVICES

INITIATING DEVICE

CIRCUIT

INITIATING DEVICE

CIRCUIT RETURN

ZONE 1

TROUBLE

ALARM

The compatibility considerations of smoke detectors that

were detailed in Class B circuits apply with Class A as well

(Figure 11).

FIRE ALARM CONTROL UNIT

PRIMARY

POWER

SUPPLY

Figure 11: 2-Wire Detectors – Style D (Class A) Circuit

Wireless Circuits

Fire Safety Functions

Wireless detectors and their internal transmitters derive Often smoke detectors are utilized to control ancillary

their operating power from their internal battery or batter- equipment. Most detectors used in releasing service have

ies and are listed by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. in auxiliary relay contacts which are directly connected to the

accordance with requirements of NFPA 72. Supervision of system or device to be controlled. Care should be taken to

the internal battery power source is incorporated within ensure that detectors utilized in such a manner are

the smoke detector circuitry. If the battery power source approved for releasing service. A few of the typical appli-

depletes to the threshold specified by Underwriters cations are as follows:

Laboratories, the smoke detector will sound a local alert

and initiate a trouble signal once each hour for a minimum

of seven days or until the battery or batteries are replaced.

• To control the flow of smoke in air handling and air

conditioning systems.

• To release doors to contain smoke in a fire situation.

• To release locks to allow exit in a fire situation.

• To capture and recall elevators in a fire situation.

• To activate a suppression system.

The wireless initiating devices are supervised for tamper

and/or removal by initiating a distinct trouble signal. Each

wireless device also initiates a test transmission every hour

to verify the reliability of the communication circuit. Any Spacing and placement requirements for detectors used in

device failing to communicate is identified on the control releasing service may be different from detectors used in

panel no less than every four hours.

conventional open area applications. It is recommended

that 4-wire detectors be used in these situations because

depending on the control panel and detectors used, more

than one detector relay on a circuit may not receive enough

power from the 2-wire circuit to operate during alarm.

General Zoning Guidelines

The faster the source of an alarm can be pinpointed, the

faster action can be taken. Although formal rules for zon-

ing are not given in fire protection codes, except for wire-

less devices where each smoke detector must be individu- Smoke Detector Installation

ally identified, it is always sensible to zone any system that Wiring Installation Guidelines

contains more than

small number of detectors. All fire alarm system installation wiring should be installed

Experienced detector installers and system designers rec- in compliance with Article 760 of NFPA 70, the National

ommend the following:

Electrical Code (NEC), the manufacturer’s instructions and

the requirements of the authority having jurisdiction.

• Establish at least one zone on every protected floor.

• Zone natural subdivisions of a large building, such as

separate wings on a single floor.

Typical Wiring Techniques

• Minimize the number of detectors in each zone. Fewer The primary rule of installation wiring is:

detectors on a zone will speed up locating the fire and

simplify troubleshooting.

“Follow the Manufacturer’s Instructions”

This rule cannot be overemphasized. The requirement for

• Install duct detectors in different zones than open-area electrical supervision of the installation wires and their

detectors for troubleshooting and locating purposes.

connections to initiating devices makes fire alarm system

installation wiring very different than general wiring.

A manufacturer’s installation wiring drawing routes wires

and shows connections in a certain manner to accommo-

date supervision requirements. Any variance from the

manufacturer’s drawings might cause a portion of a circuit

to be unsupervised and, if an open or short circuit fault

occurred, it could prevent the circuit from being able to

perform its intended function without giving the required

trouble indication.

Smoke Detector “A”

The rules of supervision are not very complex. However,

unless an installer is experienced in fire alarm system instal-

lations, he or she would not likely be familiar with them.

Smoke detector manufacturer’s installation drawings will

show how their detectors are to be connected into a system.

However, a manufacturer’s drawings may not show how

devices located on the same floor, but served by a different

riser (vertical wiring run), should be connected. The dia-

grams on the following page should be considered as typi-

cal initiating device circuits utilizing smoke detectors. They

are offered to illustrate proper and improper installation

wiring and termination techniques. Since there are always

exceptions to typical installation drawings, experienced

installers use the primary rule of installation wiring: Follow

the manufacturer’s instructions, and meet the local codes.

Smoke Detector

Figure 12: Incorrect Wiring Method

Smoke Detector

Figure 12 illustrates improper wiring of smoke detector “A”.

This wiring method is referred to as “T-tapping.” This com-

mon installation error is often made in riser wiring as well

as single floor wiring. The smoke detector may operate

properly under alarm conditions. If it becomes disconnect-

ed from the installation wiring loop beyond the “T-tap”,

however, the detector would not function, and no “trou-

ble” condition would occur.

NOTE: “T-tapping” may be permitted with some

“intelligent” fire alarm systems. Refer to manufacturer’s

recommendations.

Smoke Detector

Figure 13: Correct Wiring Method

Figure 13 illustrates the correct installation wiring method

for smoke detectors. None of the connections can be bro-

ken without opening the circuit, causing loss of supervi-

sion, and the fire alarm control panel to indicate trouble.

Smoke detectors should be connected to supervised instal-

lation wiring in a manner that ensures electrical supervision

of the device. Removal of a detector from its associated ini-

tiating circuit should cause the loop to open, resulting in a

trouble condition. The required termination at the smoke

detector may involve either screw terminals or wire pigtails.

Regardless of the method utilized, removal of the smoke

detector or a single installation wire must open the initiat-

ing circuit and result in a trouble signal at the control panel.

Figure 14: Proper Termination

Screw termination of either side of the initiating circuit may

require only one or two screws. Figure 14 is an example of

proper termination when one screw terminal is used. Note

that the installation conductor has been cut before termina-

tion. This assures full supervision of the smoke detector.

Figure 15 details common connection errors. In both exam-

ples, removal of the smoke detector wire does not open the

initiating circuit. The fire alarm control panel will not rec-

ognize a trouble condition, and the detector that has been

deliberately or inadvertently disconnected will be disabled.

Figure 15: Improper Termination

Figure 16 is an example of properly connected

smoke detectors provided with pigtails. This

method of termination supervises all wiring to

the point at which it connects to the detector.

may require more power than the initiating device cir-

cuit can supply. This could result in the inability of the

relay to control auxiliary equipment to which it is con-

nected.

Wire Nut

• When using wireless detectors, follow the manufactur-

er’s installation instructions to assure proper radio

communication between the smoke detector and the

control panel.

• Observe polarity when required.

• Protect detectors against contamination during con-

struction or renovation.

Smoke

Detector

Figure 17 shows an incorrect pigtail connec-

tion. This is a form of “T-tapping” discussed

earlier. Note that the conductor between the

wire nut (or splice) and the detector is unsu-

pervised, and could be cut or disconnected

without resulting in a trouble signal.

Figure 16: Pigtail Connections –

Correct Wiring Method

• Carefully follow the manufacturer’s installation

instructions.

Wireless Systems

Wireless smoke detectors do not require any

field wiring as the power for the initiating

devices is contained and incorporated within

the device. Removal of a wireless smoke detec-

tor initiates a distinct tamper or trouble signal.

Follow the instructions in the manufacturer’s

installation manual for wireless systems.

Wire Nut

Don’t:

• “T-tap” smoke detectors or circuit conductors, except

when specifically permitted by the manufacturer as

part of an intelligent/addressable system.

• Loop uncut installation conductors around screw ter-

minations.

• Exceed the maximum resistance permitted for the ini-

tiating device system.

• Exceed the number of 2-wire detectors allowed on a 2-

wire initiating circuit (specified by UL).

Installation Do’s and Don’ts

Do:

Smoke

Detector

• Verify that 2-wire smoke detectors to be

used have been tested and UL listed for

compatibility with the equipment to

which they are connected. If necessary,

contact the manufacturer for this informa-

tion.

• Locate any end-of-line devices electrically

at the end of the circuit, beyond all initi-

ating devices (not at the control unit,

except in a Class A installation).

• Use caution when utilizing 2-wire detec-

tors with integral relays, because they

Wiring and System Checkout

As required for all installation wiring of fire alarm systems,

check the detector loop wiring for grounds, short circuits,

and open faults before the system is placed into operation.

Each detector should be tested in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions.

Figure 17: Pigtail Connections –

Incorrect Wiring Method

When using wireless detectors, verify the radio signal trans-

mission strength in accordance with the installation manual.

Section 4

After all detectors have been Some codes or ordinances have minimum objectives such

installed, test the complete as capturing elevators or preventing circulation of smoke

system to ensure that no through the HVAC systems instead of early detection of fire.

wiring faults exist, and that all

parts of the system operate as A user should weigh the costs against the benefits of

intended. A complete system installing a complete fire detection system when any detec-

Proper Detector

Applications,

Placement and

Spacing*

checkout consists of testing each detector at its installed tion system is being installed. The location, quantity and

location and following the panel manufacturer’s instruc- zoning of detectors should be determined by what objec-

tions for system checkout. Also, refer to NFPA 72 for addi- tives are desired rather than the minimum requirements of

tional information.

any local codes or ordinances.

“Total coverage”, as defined in NFPA 72, is the definition

of a complete fire detection system. In some of the speci-

fied areas of coverage, such as attics, closets, under open

loading docks or platforms, a heat detector may be more

appropriate than a smoke detector. Careful consideration

should be given to the detector manufacturer’s instructions

and the following recommendations in this guide.

Where to Place Detectors

Detector placement is critical to early warning functions.

To provide effective early warning of a developing fire sit-

uation, smoke detectors should be installed in all areas of

the protected premises. Total coverage as defined by NFPA

72 should include all rooms, halls, storage areas, base-

ments, attics, lofts, and spaces above suspended ceilings

including plenum areas utilized as part of the HVAC sys-

tem. In addition, this should include all closets, elevator

shafts, enclosed stairways, dumbwaiter shafts, chutes and

other subdivisions and accessible spaces.

In general, when only one detector is required in a room or

space, the detector should be placed as close to the center

of the ceiling as possible. Central location of the detector is

best for sensing fires in any part of the room. If a center

location is not possible, it may be placed no closer than 4

inches from the wall, or if listed for wall mounting, it may

Fire detection systems installed to meet local codes or ordi-

nances may not be adequate for early warning of fire.

*The guidelines in this section of the guide are adapted from Standards published by the National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,

Massachusetts, USA. These standards include NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code; NFPA 70, “National Electrical Code”, Article 760; and NFPA

90A, “Installation of Air Conditioning and Ventilating Systems”.

be mounted on the wall. Wall-mounted detectors should be

located not less than 4 inches nor more than 12 inches

from the ceiling to the top of the detector, and at least 4

inches (10 cm) from any corner wall junction. (See Figure

18.)

4 in. (10 cm)

Ceiling

When air supply and/or air return ducts are present in a

room or space, the detector(s) should not be placed in the

path of the air flow supply or return duct (NFPA 72, 1999

Edition).

Smoke tests are helpful in determining proper placement.

Special attention should be given to smoke travel directions

and velocity, since either can affect detector performance.

Never Here

Acceptable Here

Placement of detectors near air conditioning or incoming

air vents can also cause excessive accumulation of dust

and dirt on the detectors. This dirt can cause detectors to

malfunction and cause unwanted alarms. Detectors should

not be located closer than 3 feet from an air supply diffuser

or an air return vent.

Top of Detector Acceptable Here

Spot type detectors, in properly engineered systems, may

also be placed in return air ducts, or in approved duct

detector housings designed for this application. Although

duct detectors are not a substitute for open area detectors,

they can provide an effective method of initiating building

control functions to prevent smoke from being transported

from the fire area to other parts of a building. (See Duct

Smoke Detector Applications Guide.)

Note: Measurements shown are to the

closest edge of the detector.

Side Wall

Figure 18: Wall Mounted Detector – Placement

• Extreme Cold or Hot Environments

Where Not To Place Detectors

Avoid very cold or very hot environments, or unheat-

ed buildings or rooms where the temperature can fall

below or exceed the operating temperature range of

the detector. At temperatures above or below the oper-

ating range of the detector*, its internal components

may not function properly.

See Table A-2-3.6.1.2A in NFPA 72-1999.

One of the major causes of unwanted alarms is improper

placement of detectors. The best way to avoid unwanted

alarms is not to install detectors in environments that can

cause them to malfunction, or to install detectors specially

designed for those environments. Examples follow:

• Excessively Dusty or Dirty Areas

*Manufacturers’ specifications should list acceptable

temperatures in these ranges.

• Areas with Combustion Particles

In excessively dusty or dirty areas consider using the

Filtrex^™smoke detector. This detector incorporates a

microprocessor-controlled air intake fan and filter that

allows the unit to be installed in areas where ordinary

detectors cannot be used. Filtrex is an intelligent

smoke detector that removes airborne particles before

they reach the sensing chamber. It is ideal for textile

mills, dusty manufacturing facilities, paper mills, and

recycling centers. For more information see System

Sensor’s Filtrex^™Applications Guide.

Avoid areas where particles of combustion are nor-

mally present, such as in kitchens or other areas with

ovens and burners; in garages, where particles of com-

bustion are present in vehicle exhausts. When a detec-

tor must be located in or adjacent to such an area, a

heat detector may be appropriate.

• Manufacturing Areas

Avoid manufacturing areas, battery rooms, or other

areas where substantial quantities of vapors, gases, or

fumes may be present. Strong vapors can make detec-

tors overly sensitive or less sensitive than normal. In

very large concentrations, gases heavier than air, such

as carbon dioxide, may make detectors more sensitive,

while gases lighter than air, such as helium, may make

them less sensitive. Aerosol particles may collect on

detector chamber surfaces and cause nuisance alarms.

• Fluorescent Light Fixtures

• Outdoors

Avoid using detectors outdoors, in open storage sheds,

or other open structures affected by dust, air currents,

or excessive humidity and temperature extremes.

• Wet or Excessively Humid Areas

Avoid damp, wet or excessively humid areas, or next

to bathrooms with showers.

• Elevator Lobbies

Avoid placement near fluorescent light fixtures.

Electrical noise generated by fluorescent light fixtures

may cause unwanted alarms. Install detectors at least

1 foot (0.3 m) away from such light fixtures.

Do not place over ashtrays or where people will smoke

while waiting for the elevator.

to use system detectors and manual fire alarm stations in

the hallways and common areas of the complex and resi-

dential single station type smoke detectors and heat detec-

tors in the individual apartments. The system detectors,

manual stations and heat detectors would be connected to

a control panel, sound a general alarm and automatically

notify the proper authorities that a fire condition exists.

The residential smoke detectors located in the apartments

would be interconnected only within the individual living

quarters of each apartment. These residential units would

sound an alarm only in the apartment where a fire started.

Special Application Detectors

The guidelines in this document generally apply to stan-

dard open-area smoke detectors. System Sensor has a num-

ber of advanced technology detectors that are optimized

for specific environments and should be considered.

Pinnacle^™Laser technology smoke detector is designed for

use in areas that require extremely early warning of fire. It

is designed to detect the earliest particles of combustion

making it ideal for clean rooms, computer rooms or

telecommunication centers — any area where any damage

is too much. As Pinnacle is ultra-sensitive to smoke — as

much as 100 times more sensitive than standard detectors

— care and judgement of application is needed to prevent

unwanted alarms. See System Sensor’s Pinnacle^™

Applications Guide.

Detector Spacing

General Spacing Guidelines

Some fire protection codes specify detector spacing on a

given center-to-center distance between detectors under

ideal conditions. These distances are based on rooms with

smooth ceilings with no physical obstructions between the

contents being protected and the detectors. Moreover, they

are also based on a maximum ceiling height, and on the

assumption that the value and the combustible nature of

the contents of the room to be protected do not warrant

greater protection or closer spacing.

For environments classified as hazardous, System Sensor

offers Intrinsically Safe Detectors designed to provide

detection for high-risk areas such as oil production facili-

ties, refineries and chemical plants. These units operate on

low energy levels and are used with a safety barrier. See

our Guide for Proper Use of Intrinsically Safe Fire

Protection Devices.

If we assume a typical center distance spacing guideline is

30 feet (90 meters), how do we determine whether a given

room or space can be protected by a single detector? Figure

19 shows four detectors spaced horizontally and vertically

30 feet (9 meters) apart. Detectors B and D, however, are

more than 30 feet apart. Clearly, in this example detector

spacing can exceed the given 30 foot spacing and still com-

ply with the code if any source of combustion is within

21.2 feet (6.4 meters) of the horizontal projection of a

detector, and if no more than 900 square feet (82.8 square

meters) are being protected by one detector.

Standards for Smoke Detectors

Underwriters Laboratories (UL) has three standards for

smoke detectors: one for duct detectors, UL 268A; one for

single and multiple station smoke alarms, UL 217; and one

for systems type detectors, UL 268. Detectors should only

be used for the applications for which they are specifically

listed.

The 2000 NFPA 101 Life Safety Code notes in Section

9.6.2.10.4 that single station smoke alarms shall sound an

alarm only within an individual living unit, suite of rooms,

or similar area and shall not actuate the building fire alarm

system unless otherwise permitted by the authority having

jurisdiction. Section 9.6.1.5 states, “All systems and com-

ponents shall be approved for the purpose for which

installed.”

To determine what coverage patterns are permissible with-

in the 30 foot spacing, start by tracing a circle with a radius

of 21.2 feet. Keeping in mind the fact that most rooms and

areas to be protected are rectangular or square in shape, any

square or rectangle that fits within the circumference of the

circle may be protected by one detector. (See Figure 20.)

In addition to possible code noncompliance, the following

deficiencies would exist in a series of residential smoke

detectors, connected in a system mode:

• Since the system is not supervised, vandals or others

could disconnect a detector or the entire system, leav-

ing a building without protection. The residents would

be unaware of this serious life threatening condition.

• Residential smoke alarms do not latch in alarm. In

other words, the smoke alarm self-resets. One smoke

alarm in alarm will sound all the smoke alarms con-

nected together. It would be difficult to identify or

locate a specific smoke alarm that initially put the sys-

tem into alarm after the alarm condition was cleared.

30 ft. (9.1 m)

6.4 m)

21.2 ft. (

System detectors latch in alarm. They do not reset until

power is momentarily disconnected. This makes it conven-

ient to identify the location of a detector that caused the

control panel to alarm. In addition, system detectors are

specifically designed to connect to a panel. Two-wire detec-

tors require a UL compatibility review to verify that the

detector and panel operate together. A typical life safety

fire protection system for an apartment complex would be

Figure 19: Typical Detector Spacing

In other words, if a diagonal through the center of the room

is no greater than the diameter of the circle, or 42.4 feet

(12.8 meters), one detector can be used under ideal condi-

tions. Figure 21 shows how a length of hallway can be pro-

tected by only two detectors under ideal conditions.

Rectangles

A 10 ft. × 41 ft. = 410 sq. ft.

B 15 ft. × 39 ft. = 585 sq. ft.

C 20 ft. × 37 ft. = 740 sq. ft.

D 25 ft. × 34 ft. = 850 sq. ft.

E 30 ft. × 30 ft. = 900 sq. ft.

Special Spacing Problems

The ideal conditions upon which code guidelines are based

do not exist in the majority of buildings. Detector installers

usually have to deal with a variety of problems, such as

uneven ceilings or ceilings crossed by beams and joists;

storage racks and partitions that obstruct the path of smoke

toward detectors; air stratification due to uninsulated roofs,

peaked or sloped ceilings, or localized heating or cooling

from heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems;

and extensive variability in the value and combustion char-

acteristics of building contents. The following are suggest-

ed techniques for dealing with some of the special detector

spacing problems:

Figure 20: Detector Coverage Patterns

10 ft.

• Solid joist and beam construction. Per NFPA 72-1996,

solid joists are to be considered equivalent to beams

for smoke detector spacing guidelines. For ceiling

heights of 12 ft. (3.66 m) or lower and beam depths of

1 ft. (0.3 m) or less, smooth ceiling spacing running in

the direction parallel to the run of the beams is to be

used, and 1/2 the smooth ceiling spacing is to be used

in the direction perpendicular to the run of the beams.

Spot-type detectors may be located either on the ceil-

ing or on the bottom of the beams. For beam depths

exceeding 1 ft. (0.3 m) or for ceiling heights exceeding

12 ft. (3.66 m), detectors are to be located on the ceil-

ing in every beam pocket. If the beamed ceiling is also

sloped, use the spacing determined for flat beamed

ceilings. Use the average height over the slope as the

ceiling height in such cases. Note that, by definition in

NFPA 72, ceilings are to be considered smooth unless

the beams or joists are more than 4 in. (0.1 m) in

depth.

20.5 ft.

41 ft.

82 ft.

20.5 ft.

Figure 21: Detector Placement in Hallways

lating, or air conditioning (HVAC) system creates arti-

ficial hot or cold air layers in a room, the layers may

affect the flow of smoke to the detectors.

• Uninsulated Roofs. Uninsulated roofs present special

placement problems. Air movement toward ceiling

detectors is not impeded when the outside tempera-

ture is cool, but stratification can occur when outside

temperature is warm or hot, or when the roof is heat-

ed by the sun on bright, sunny days. Although true

thermal barriers are not present in many installations,

smoke tests should be run in factories or warehouses

with metal roofs on warm sunny days to determine

whether such a thermal barrier exists.

• High storage racks. Multi-level storage racks present

special problems for early fire detection. Developing

fires, especially smoldering fires, on the lower levels of

the racks may not be sensed rapidly by ceiling mount-

ed detectors. Upward convection of smoke can be

slowed or blocked by goods stored on the upper levels

of the racks. Multi-level fire detection is required.

Detectors should be installed on the ceiling above each

aisle and on intermediate levels of the racks adjacent

to alternate pallet sections, shown in NFPA 72-1999,

A-2-3.6.5. A consultant’s judgement may be required

for specific installations.

• Partitions. Partitions and many types of large, tall

equipment standing on the floor can block the flow of

smoke toward detectors. Any partition or similar

obstruction that is less than 18 inches (45 cm) from

the ceiling should be treated as a side wall dividing the

area protected.

• Peaked or Sloped Ceilings. Peaked or sloped ceilings

can foster air stratification. Codes may specify spacing

detectors by using horizontal spacing from the peak of

the roof or ceiling. For instance, if the specified dis-

tance from the peak is 3 feet (1 m), the dis-

tance is measured on the base of the

right triangle formed by a vertical line

dropped from the peak of the roof,

with the roof incline as the

Detector may be placed

anywhere in shaded area.

hypotenuse. Additional detec-

tors are installed on the

3 ft.

selected spacing, using

the horizontal distance,

not the distance

along the incline of

the ceiling. (See

Figure 22.)

• Air Stratification. Air stratification in a room may keep

air containing smoke from reaching ceiling-mounted

detectors. Three conditions are known to accentuate

air stratification: when a layer of hot air exists under a

poorly insulated roof heated by the sun, cooler air will

stratify the hot air layer at the ceiling; when a layer of

cold air exists under a poorly insulated roof cooled

from the outside by cold air, the heated air is cooled as

it reaches the cold air layer; or when a heating, venti-

S/2

S = Detector Spacing

Figure 22: Detector Spacing Layout – Sloped Ceilings (peaked type)

• Alternate Detector Mounting. Mounting alternate

detectors up to 3 feet (1 m) below the ceiling can

increase detection of small or smoldering fires when

the possibility of air stratification exists. Figure 23

illustrates such an installation. Specific designs for

such an alternate detection should be based upon an

engineering survey.

• Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

effects on air flow and air stratification should be

determined and considered when planning detector

placement. In rooms where forced-air ventilation is

present, detectors should not be located where air

from supply diffusers could dilute smoke before it

reaches the detector. This may require additional

detectors, because placing detectors only near return

air openings may leave the balance of the area with

inadequate protection, especially when the Heating,

Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system is not

operating.

• Detectors placed in an above-ceiling air handling space

should not be used as a substitute for open area pro-

tection, because smoke may not be drawn into the air

handling space when the ventilating system is shut

down. The detector will be less responsive to a fire

condition in the room below than a detector located on

the ceiling of the room below due to dilution and fil-

tering of the air in the air handling space before the

smoke reaches a detector. (See the discussion of detec-

tor placement in Section 4: Where To Place Detectors).

• Burn characteristics and the value of assets being pro-

tected influence the spacing of detectors and the

amount of protection provided in a specific room or

area. Refer to NFPA 72-1999, Section 2-3.6 for more

detailed information on spacing of detectors under

special applications. Likewise, if the contents are espe-

cially valuable, for example, sophisticated and expen-

sive machinery or irreplaceable records, detectors

should be placed closer together.

Detectors in Air Handling and Air Conditioning

Systems

See NEMA Guide for Proper Use of Smoke Detectors in

Duct Applications and NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code

for more specific information.

Detectors in Above-Ceiling Plenum Areas

Including Plenums Utilized as Part of the HVAC

System

Detectors should be placed in plenum areas (above ceiling

air handling space) in addition to the open area detectors

installed in the open areas below and duct detectors

installed in the ducts. Plenum detectors are required to be

listed or tested and approved for the air velocities within

the environment in which they are to be installed.

Detectors placed in plenums MAY NOT be used as a sub-

stitute for open area protection, because smoke may not be

drawn into the plenum when the ventilating system is shut

down. When the system is operating, the detector may be

less responsive to a fire condition in the room below than

will a detector located on the ceiling of the room below.

This may be due to blockage, dilution, and filtering of the

air prior to its arrival at the detector location in the plenum

area.

Since the air circulating through the plenums is usually at

higher velocities than would be prevalent in the room

below, detector spacing should be reduced.

Also, the dilution of the smoke in plenum spaces is an

important consideration when utilizing smoke detectors

rated for higher velocities. Therefore, plenum detectors

should be utilized to detect fire in the plenum but should

never be utilized as a substitute for duct detectors and

open area detectors.

Maintenance requirements of detectors exposed to unusu-

al velocities (above 300 fpm) are generally increased due to

the excessive dirt buildup and contamination present in

these environments.

3 ft. Minimum

Smoke Detectors at Ceiling

Smoke Detectors below Ceiling

Figure 23: High Ceiling Area

Smoke detectors are designed

to be as maintenance free as

possible. However, dust, dirt,

and other foreign matter can

accumulate inside a detector’s

sensing elements and change

its sensitivity. They can

Section 5

If a detector’s sensitivity is within specifications, nothing

further needs to be done to the detector. If the detector’s

sensitivity is outside specifications, clean the detector and

retest. If that does not place the sensitivity within the unit

specified range then follow the manufacturer’s recom-

mended procedure.

Testing,

Maintenance

and Service of

Detectors

become either more sensitive, which may cause unwanted

alarms, or less sensitive, which could reduce the amount of

warning time given in case of a fire. Both are undesirable.

Therefore, detectors should be tested periodically and

maintained at regular intervals. Follow closely the manu-

facturer’s specific recommended practices for maintenance

and testing. Also refer to Appendix B of NFPA 90A and

NFPA 72, Chapter 7.

Restore zone or system at the completion of testing.

Notify the proper authorities that testing has been com-

pleted and the system is again operational.

Refer to paragraph 7-4.1 of NFPA 72 for additional infor-

mation.

To assure that each smoke detector is within its listed and

marked sensitivity range it should be tested using either:

• A calibrated test method, or

• The manufacturer’s calibrated sensitivity test instru-

ment, or

• Listed control equipment arranged for the purpose, or

• Other calibrated sensitivity test method acceptable to

the authority having jurisdiction.

Caution

Smoke detectors are sophisticated electronic devices that

need periodic testing and maintenance. To maintain the

integrity of any fire alarm system, it is important to have a

qualified person periodically test the system.

Typical Inspection, Test and Maintenance

Practices

Detectors should be given a visual inspection at installation

and at least twice a year thereafter. This ensures that each

detector remains in good physical condition and that there

are no changes that would affect detector performance,

such as building modifications, occupancy hazards, and

environmental effects.

Detectors found to have a sensitivity of 0.25 percent/ft.

obscuration or more outside the listed and marked sensi-

tivity range should be cleaned and recalibrated or replaced.

Exception: Detectors listed as field adjustable may be

either adjusted within the listed and marked sensitivity

range, cleaned and recalibrated, or replaced.

Restore the zone or system at the completion of testing.

Notify the proper authorities that the smoke detector is

undergoing maintenance, and therefore the system will

temporarily be out of service. NOTE: Disable the zone or

system undergoing maintenance to prevent unwanted

alarms and possible dispatch of the fire department.

Notify all the persons contacted at the beginning of the test

that testing has been completed and the system is again

operational.

Some individuals rely on an aerosol chemical spray to test

the sensitivity of a detector. This can give unsatisfactory

results since an aerosol chemical spray does not accurate-

ly test detector sensitivity. NFPA 72-1999, Chapter 7,

Section 7-3.2.1 notes that, “The detector sensitivity shall

not be tested or measured using any device that adminis-

ters an unmeasured concentration of smoke or other

aerosol into the detector.” The duration of spray, distance

between the detector and the aerosol container, angle of

discharge, and different environmental conditions can pro-

duce random results. In addition, many aerosols leave an

oily residue. Over a period of time, this oily residue can

attract dust or dirt, which can make a detector more sensi-

tive and result in nuisance alarms.

Use a high power vacuum cleaner and remove dust from

the detector by placing the nozzle as close as possible to

the openings in the outside housing. A nozzle with a brush

attachment will assist in dust removal. Some detector’s

sensing chambers can be removed for more thorough

cleaning; refer to the manufacturer’s recommended proce-

dure for details.

Test each detector’s sensitivity per the manufacturer’s rec-

ommended procedure within one year after installation

and every alternate year thereafter.

Test each detector functionally in place annually, as

detailed in NFPA 72 1999 (Chapter 7).

Be sure to follow the manufacturer’s recommendation on

test gas, aerosol or smoke.

Section 6

Make sure that all the detectors in the zone or pinpointed

device(s) that show an alarm are checked before deciding

that it is a false alarm. If a fire does exist, more than one

detector may be in the alarm state, although no signs of fire

may be evident in the vicinity of the first activated detec-

tor. The fire could be overlooked.

What to Do About

Unwanted Alarms

Troubleshooting

Techniques

No detection system is imper-

vious to unwanted alarms.

Statistically, as the system size and the total number of

detectors increases, the total number of nuisance alarms

per year tends to increase. Historical experience in a given

installation or data on similar sized buildings with similar

utilization patterns can provide a basis for a rough indica-

tion of how many nuisance alarms are probable during a

12 month span; however, no two installations are identical.

Maintain an Alarm Log

The next step for all alarms should be entry of a report into

an Alarm Log. A typical Alarm Log is shown in Appendix

2 (page 19). Such a log serves immediate and long-term

purposes.

In small- to moderate-sized detection systems protecting

relatively combustion-free environments, like office build-

ings, more than one or two unwanted alarms per year

would be unusual. In more adverse environments, such as

laboratory or manufacturing facilities where combustion

processes are present, more frequent alarms can be antici-

pated. In very adverse environments, one alarm per month

might not be considered excessive.

The Alarm Log indicates which individuals responded to

the alarm and whether or not they took appropriate action.

Periodic review of the cumulative Alarm Log can help those

responsible for the detection system discern patterns in the

reported alarms. Generally, several months (or even years)

of data may be necessary before patterns begin to emerge.

In a worst case example, a pattern of repeated alarms or

small fires in a particular area may indicate a serious defi-

ciency in safety practices that should be promptly correct-

ed. In less obvious cases, patterns are indicated by repeat-

ed alarms in the same or adjacent zones with similar prob-

able causes, or repeated alarms in the same zone that

occur at about the same time of day, or time of year.

After the first few months, which serve as a shakedown

period, it should be possible to arrive at some reasonable

expectation for probable unwanted alarms from the sys-

tem. After that, any unexpected change in frequency or dis-

tribution indicates a problem that should be investigated.

The best way to monitor alarm frequency and distribution

is to maintain an alarm log.

Effects of Location or Environment

Reasons for Unwanted Alarms

Check for the effects of location and environment. Review

the information in this guide Where To Place Detectors and

Where NOT to Place Detectors to determine whether the

detector’s location or its environment is potentially causing

the unwanted alarms. Also, refer to the installation manu-

al for further information.

Unwanted alarms can result from a wide variety of causes,

including:

• Improper locations are environments where they will

not operate properly because of temperature extremes;

excessive dust, dirt, or humidity, excessive air flow

rates, or the normal presence of combustion particles

in the air streams surrounding the detectors.

• Improper installation can occur when detectors and

their wiring are not protected from interference from

induced currents and noise in adjacent wiring systems,

radio-frequency transmissions, and other types of elec-

tromagnetic effects.

• Inadequate maintenance can result in the accumula-

tion of dust and dirt on the detector’s sensing cham-

bers over a period of time.

• Seasonal effects such as the reactivation of a building

heating system after an extended summer shutdown

can cause alarms.

One often overlooked source of problems is the placement

of detectors where air streams carry smoke or chemical

fumes from some areas of an installation past detectors in

other areas unrelated to the source of the contaminants.

Diagnosing problems of this kind requires that air move-

ments into the problem area, especially near the ceiling, be

carefully checked and their sources be determined.

Experienced heating, ventilating, and air conditioning

(HVAC) engineers or contractors usually have the training

and specialized equipment (flow meters, etc.) to conduct

such a study. In very difficult cases, a full-scale smoke test

may be required to solve the problem.

• Building maintenance issues, such as accidental trig-

gering of a detector’s magnetic test switch, or the

introduction of plaster dust from drywall repairs into a

detector’s sensing chamber can cause unwanted

alarms.

Conversely, strong air streams near air inlet or supply

ducts, etc. can also prevent a detector from signaling an

alarm when a fire is present by blowing smoke away from

the detector heads.

• Induced current effects from lightning storms can

cause alarms.

• Infestation from insects small enough to enter the

detector’s sensing chamber.

• Vandalism or mischievous acts — detectors set off as a

prank have been found to be a problem in dormitories.

Inspect Detector for Dirt and Review Maintenance

If the Alarm Log indicated that after several months or a

year with a fairly stable alarm rate, there is a gradual

increase in the frequency of unwanted alarms, this is usu-

ally an indication that the detectors in the system should

be cleaned.

If an alarm occurs and a fire does not exist, the alarm

should be silenced, the problem unit located, and the

alarm system controls reset so that the effectiveness of the

detection system is restored.

NFPA standards require and smoke detector manufacturers or other dust-producing operations in the vicinity of the

recommend that all detectors be visually inspected twice detector heads to prevent false alarms due to the dust get-

a year.

ting into the detector sensing chambers. In new construc-

tion applications drywall dust contamination affects all

Clean the detectors at least once a year, or more frequent- types of smoke detectors. To help overcome this problem, it

ly if environmental conditions warrant it. See the section is strongly recommended that installation of detector heads

on Detector Testing and Maintenance in this guide for more be delayed until after drywall installation is completed or to

details.

protect detector heads from dust contamination.

In cases where the probable cause of a number of alarms

appears to be dust or dirt on the detectors, detector main- If alarms occur whenever the heating system is turned on

tenance schedules should be reviewed to determine the after an extended shutdown, due to the accumulated dust

dates when the detectors were last cleaned and tested. If burning off as the system components heat, the detector

the detectors are due or overdue for maintenance, schedul- system can be turned off for a short period while the heat-

ing and performing the recommended cleaning and testing ing system is activated and checked out, or the start-up of

should eliminate the problem.

the heating system can be scheduled for an evening, week-

end or other off-hours period to minimize the effects of

If the problem resulted from a temporary overall increase alarms on regular daytime activities.

in airborne dust due to nearby construction, scheduling a

one-time special cleaning for all the detectors in the system Not all unwanted alarms are caused by dirt, interference or

should alleviate the problem. If the problem is confined to other effects on the detectors. If the control panel shows an

one or two zones and is the result of higher dust levels in alarm but no detectors in the zone are indicating an alarm

a particular area, scheduling the detectors in those areas condition, the possibility of interference or a failure of a

for more frequent maintenance and cleaning may prevent control panel component should also be investigated.

the development of similar alarm problems in the future.

Responsibilities of Detector Owners and

Installers

Effects of Other Systems on Alarm System

In checking for the effects of other systems on the alarm

system wiring the Alarm Log may be very valuable in help-

ing to pinpoint relationships among apparently causeless

alarms. One important fact that can be obtained from an

Alarm Log is the beginning date for a rash of apparently

causeless alarms that may or may not be grouped around

one particular zone. The sudden onset of such a group of

alarms may result when an addition or change in the alarm

system or in another electrical or electromechanical system

in the building affects the detectors or the alarm system

circuitry.

The owners of smoke detector-equipped fire alarm systems

are responsible for maintaining the integrity of the detec-

tion system. This can be accomplished by:

• Maintaining an Alarm Log and training appropriate

personnel to properly maintain the system as

described above in the section titled What To Do When

Unwanted Alarms Occur.

• Maintaining a Detector Maintenance Log that records

inspection, testing and cleaning data for each detector

in the system. (Refer to Section 6 of this manual –

Testing, Maintenance and Service of Detectors for

information on recommended testing and maintenance

intervals and procedures, and a sample Detector

Maintenance Log page.)

• Maintaining a complete file of information on the

alarm system in a readily accessible location. This file

should include specifications and installation instruc-

tions for the detectors, control panel, and auxiliary

devices, wiring diagrams and wire location informa-

tion, and the manufacturer’s recommendations for iso-

lating the detection system wiring from other electrical

wiring to prevent interference and unwanted alarms.

• Making certain that maintenance personnel or con-

tractors working on the building’s electrical systems

are given copies of the alarm system wiring layout and

locations so that potential interference from other

wiring systems can be prevented by proper insulation

and spacing during installation.

Systems that can affect the alarm system include: other

security systems; walkie-talkie; mobile telephones; heat-

ing, ventilating, and air conditioning controls; elevator call

systems; remote control equipment (door closers, etc.);

and even the installation of microwave antenna. If the

alarm pattern supports the possibility of some kind of

interference with a fairly definite initiation date, all equip-

ment changes made in the building immediately prior to or

concurrent with the beginning of the development of the

alarm pattern should be reviewed. In addition, the wiring

layouts of the alarm system and any recent building or sys-

tem modifications should be compared to make sure that

the spacing and/or shielding required to protect the alarm

system wiring from other potentially interfering electrical

systems was maintained.

Miscellaneous Causes of Unwanted Alarms

Isolated alarm causes such as a maintenance person acci-

dentally triggering an alarm by touching a detector with a

magnetic screwdriver can be ignored, except to periodical-

ly remind maintenance personnel to be careful when work-

ing around detectors.

• Keeping accurate records of installation and modifica-

tions to all other building electromechanical systems

that could cause interference with the alarm system,

including updating schematics, wiring layouts, and

wiring location information whenever changes are

made, so that problems can be promptly found and

eliminated.

Steps should also be taken to protect detectors from dust

whenever maintenance requires sawing, sanding, drilling,

• Making a record of everything done during investiga-

tion of a series of alarms, indicating a problem exists.

If assistance must be sought from the installer or man-

ufacturer, there will be an indication of the tests that

have already been done by the owner’s personnel.

• Helping the owner set up appropriate Detector

Maintenance and Alarm Logs for the system.

• Providing initial instruction and training to the

owner’s personnel or outside organization which will

be monitoring and maintaining the system.

• Providing troubleshooting assistance if nuisance alarm

problems cannot be solved satisfactorily by the

owner’s personnel or outside organization.

These services can be provided by qualified outside

organizations.

The installers of smoke detector equipped alarm systems

are responsible for providing the owners with the neces-

sary information and training so that their personnel can

maintain the integrity of the alarm system. These respon-

sibilities should include:

• Providing copies of the specifications and installation

instructions for the detectors, control panel, and auxil-

iary devices; wiring diagrams and wire location infor-

mation; and the manufacturer’s recommendations for

isolating the detection system wiring from other elec-

trical wiring to prevent interference and unwanted

alarms.

Where to Get Help if the Source of Unwanted

Alarms Can’t be Found

In the event a series of unexplained unwanted alarms

and/or a review of the Alarm Log indicates that a problem

situation exists, the owner should conduct the initial inves-

tigation to find a solution. If the owner’s personnel are

unable to determine the cause for the alarms, the installer

or representative of the manufacturer should be contacted

to help pinpoint the problem.

• Verifying that the alarm system installation meets all

applicable code requirements.

• Completely testing a newly installed, expanded, or

modified alarm system to ensure that all components

are working properly.

• Providing troubleshooting assistance to the owners for

a specified break-in period after installation in case

problems develop.

Manufacturers can be contacted by phone for additional

suggestions. If factory assistance is needed, a factory engi-

neer may be able to explain the source of the problem with

data from your Alarm Log, complete description of your

alarm system including detector model numbers, make and

model number of the control panel and other components,

and a complete summary of all aspects of the problem that

have already been checked.

Appendix 1

Addressable System Smoke End of Line Relay

Detector Device used to supervise power (for four-wire smoke

System smoke detectors, detectors) and installed after the last device on the loop.

Glossary of Terms

which, in addition to providing alarm and trouble indica-

tions to a control unit, are capable of communicating a

unique identification (address).

False Alarms

An unwanted alarm caused by non-smoke contaminants

such as dust or insects.

Air Sampling-type Detector

Fire

A sampling-type detector consists of piping or tubing distri-

bution from the detector unit to the area(s) to be protected.

An air pump draws air from the protected area back to the

detector through the air sampling ports and piping or tub-

ing. At the detector, the air is analyzed for fire particulate.

A chemical reaction between oxygen and a combustible

material where rapid oxidation results in the release of

heat, light, flame and/or smoke.

Flame Detector

A device that detects the infrared, ultraviolet, or visible

radiation produced by a fire.

Alarm (Signal) Notification Appliance

An electromechanical appliance that converts energy into

audible or visible signal for perception as an alarm signal.

Four-wire Smoke Detector

A smoke detector which initiates an alarm condition on

two separate wires (initiating loop) apart from the two

power leads.

Alarm Signal

A signal indicating an emergency requiring immediate

action, such as an alarm for fire from a manual box, a

waterflow alarm, or an alarm from an automatic fire alarm

system, or other emergency signal.

Heat Detector

A device that detects abnormally high temperature or rate-

of-temperature rise.

Alarm Verification Feature

Initiating Circuit

A feature of automatic fire detection and alarm systems to

reduce unwanted alarms, wherein automatic fire detectors

must report alarm conditions for a minimum period of time

or confirm alarm conditions within a given time period,

after being reset, to be accepted as a valid alarm initiation

signal.

A circuit which transmits an alarm signal initiated manu-

ally or automatically, such as a fire alarm box, smoke, heat,

or flame sensing device, sprinkler waterflow alarm switch

or similar device or equipment to a control panel or any

similar device or equipment which, when activated, caus-

es an alarm to be indicated or retransmitted. An Initiating

Device Circuit (Loop) is a circuit to which automatic or

manual signal initiating devices are connected where the

signal received does not identify the individual device

Annunciation

A visible and/or audible indication of system status.

Automatic Fire Alarm System

A system of controls, initiating devices and alarm signals in operated.

which all or some of the initiating circuits are activated by

Initiating Device

Any manually operated or automatically operated equip-

ment which, when activated, initiates an alarm through an

automatic devices such as smoke detectors.

Class A Circuit (Loop)

An arrangement of supervised initiating device, signaling alarm signaling device.

line, or indicating appliance circuits that prevents a single

Intelligent (Analog, Smart) System Smoke Detector

open or ground on the installation wiring of these circuits

from causing loss of the system’s intended function.

A system smoke detector capable of communicating infor-

mation about smoke conditions at its location to a control

unit. This type of detector typically communicates a

Class B Circuit (Loop)

An arrangement of supervised initiating device, signaling unique identification (address) along with an analog (data)

line, or indicating appliance circuits, which does not pre- signal, which indicates the level of smoke at its location.

vent a single open or ground on the installation wiring of

these circuits from causing loss of the system’s intended

An ionization smoke detector has a small amount of

function.

Ionization Smoke Detector

radioactive material that ionizes the air in the sensing

Combination Smoke Detector

chamber, thus rendering it conductive and permitting a

A smoke detector that combines two or more smoke or fire current to flow between two charged electrodes. This gives

sensing technologies.

the sensing chamber an effective electrical conductance.

When particles of combustion enter the ionization area,

they decrease the conductance of the air by attaching

themselves to the ions, causing a reduction in mobility.

When the conductance is less than a predetermined level,

the detector responds in a fire alarm condition.

Detector Coverage

The recommended maximum distance between adjacent

detectors or the area that a detector is designated to protect.

Drift Compensation

The capability of a detector to automatically adjust its

alarm sensitivity to compensate for any changes over time

in the factory settings for smoke and/or fire detection. In

analog systems, this may be done by the panel.

Light Scattering

The action of light being reflected and/or refracted by

smoke particles for detection by a photoelectric smoke

detector. The action of light being refracted or reflected.

End of Line

Listed

A device such as a resistor or diode placed at the end of a

Class B wire loop to maintain supervision.

Equipment or materials included in a list published by an

organization (e.g., Underwriters Laboratories) acceptable

to the “authority having jurisdiction” and concerned with

product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of Smoothing Algorithms

listed equipment or materials and whose listing states A method of “smoothing out” a detector’s interpretation of

either that the equipment or material meets appropriate sudden, short-duration increases in obscuration within the

standards or has been tested and found suitable for use in sensing chamber, intended to reduce the occurrence of nui-

a specified manner.

sance alarms.

Note: The means for identifying listed equipment may vary

for each organization concerned with product evaluation,

some of which do not recognize equipment as listed unless

it is also labeled.

Spot (Point) Detector

A device whose detecting element is concentrated at a par-

ticular location. Typical examples are bimetallic detectors,

fusible alloy detectors, certain pneumatic rate-of-rise detec-

tors, most smoke detectors and thermoelectric detectors.

Maintenance Condition

Method of providing annunciation of a smoke detector that

it is out of its listed sensitivity range.

Stratification

An effect that occurs when air containing smoke particles

or gaseous combustion products is heated by smoldering

or burning material and, becoming less dense than the sur-

rounding cooler air, rises until it reaches a level at which

there is no longer a difference in temperature between it

and the surrounding air. Stratification can also be caused

by forced ventilation.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

An organization that administers the development and

publishing of codes, standards, and other materials con-

cerning all phases of fire safety.

Nuisance Alarm

An unwanted alarm caused by smoke from cooking or cig-

arettes.

Trouble Supervision

The ability of a fire alarm control unit (FACU) to detect a

fault condition in the installation wiring, which would pre-

vent normal operation of the fire alarm system.

Obscuration

A reduction in the atmospheric transparency caused by

smoke usually expressed in percent per foot.

Thermal Lag

Particles of Combustion

When a fixed temperature device operates, the temperature

of the surrounding air will always be higher than the oper-

ating temperature of the device itself. This difference

between the operating temperature of the device and the

actual air temperature is commonly spoken of as thermal

lag, and is proportional to the rate at which the tempera-

ture is rising.

Substances (products that either remain at the site of burn-

ing such as ash, or scatter as volatile products) resulting

from the chemical process of a fire.

Photoelectric Smoke Detector

In a photoelectric light scattering smoke detector, a light

source and a photosensitive sensor are so arranged that the

rays from the light source do not normally fall on the pho-

tosensitive sensor. When smoke particles enter the light

path, some of the light is scattered by reflection and refrac-

tion onto the sensor, causing the detector to respond.

Two-wire Compatibility

Per NFPA 72, 1999 edition: “All fire detection devices that

receive their power from the initiating device circuit or use

a signaling line circuit of a fire alarm control unit shall be

listed for use with the control unit.”

Projected Beam Smoke Detector

In a projected beam detector the amount of light transmit-

ted between a light source and a photosensitive sensor is

monitored. When smoke particles are introduced into the

light path, some of the light is scattered and some

absorbed, thereby reducing the light reaching the receiver,

causing the detector to respond.

Two-wire Smoke Detector

A smoke detector which initiates an alarm condition on the

same two wires that also supply power to the detector.

Unwanted Alarm

Any false alarm or nuisance alarm.

Wireless Smoke Detector

Rate-of-rise Heat Detector

A smoke detector which contains an internal battery or

batteries that supply power to both the smoke detector and

integral radio frequency transmitter. The internal power

source is supervised and degradation of the power source

is communicated to the control panel. On stimuli, the

detector transmits a radio signal to a repeater or Fire Alarm

Control Unit (FACU) that in turn generates a signal or sta-

tus condition.

A device which will respond when the temperature rises at

a rate exceeding a predetermined amount, usually 15° per

minute.

Remote Maintenance Condition

NFPA 72 listed method of providing annunciation at the

control unit that the smoke detector is outside of its listed

sensitivity.

Smoke Detector

A device that detects the visible or invisible particles of

combustion.

Appendix 2

Fire Alarm Log

Customer Name:

Installation Date:

Installing Contractor:

Inspection and Test Date:

Inspection and Test Performed By:

Check one

Fire

Location

Action Taken By

Name and Date

Date

Time

Recorded By

Trouble

(Bldg, Zone, Det #)

Probable Cause

Action Taken

A05-1003-002

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